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Electronic Circuits for Model Kits Budowa układów elektronicznych dla modeli nie jest skomplikowanym procesem, ale wskazana jest podstawowa wiedza. Wcześniejsze Ten zestaw to Revell Imperial Start Destroyer, a nie seria Technik, ponieważ uważam, że istnieją ograniczenia w systemach elektronicznych producentów. Wcześniejsze Zastosowane komponenty to: Rezystory Kondensator Dioda Tranzystor Zegar - 555

Przetwarzanie danych What are Computer programming languages? Computer programming languages allow us to give instructions to a computer in a language the computer understands. Many human languages exist, there is also an assortment of Computer programming languages that programmers use to communicate with a computer. The portion of the language that a computer can understand is called a Binary. Translating programming language into binary is known as Compiling. Every language, from Pascal, C++, or Python, has its own distinctive features, although there are numerous similarities between each programming language. Computer languages permit computers to process large and complex lines of information rapidly and efficiently. There are lots of programming languages used in the industry today. The links below are three main languages I have used: ​ Pascal Python C++ HTML

Resistors Rezystory to pasywne dwubiegunowe elementy elektryczne, które wpływają na opór elektryczny w elemencie obwodu. W obwodach elektronicznych rezystory są używane do zmniejszania przepływu prądu, regulacji poziomów sygnałów, podziału napięć, polaryzacji elementów aktywnych i zakończenia linii transmisyjnych, ale mają też inne zastosowania. Istnieje wiele rodzajów rezystorów stosowanych w obwodach elektronicznych. Rezystory albo kontrolują przepływ prądu, albo powodują spadek napięcia. Aby to zrobić, rezystor musi mieć jakąś formę wartości „rezystancyjnej” lub „rezystancyjnej”. Dlatego rezystory są dostępne w szerokim zakresie wartości rezystancji od ułamków Ohm (Ω) do milionów Ohmów. Wcześniejsze Gdy korpus rezystora jest wystarczająco duży, aby odczytać wydruk, taki jak rezystory mocy, wartość rezystancji, tolerancja i moc znamionowa są zwykle drukowane na korpusie rezystora w postaci cyfr lub liter. Ale większość rezystorów jest małych, te specyfikacje są pokazane jako kolorowe paski, które wskazują ich wartości rezystancji i tolerancji, wraz z fizycznym rozmiarem rezystora wskazującym na jego moc znamionową. Wcześniejsze Obliczanie wartości rezystorów Najważniejszym kolorowym paskiem po lewej stronie jest taśma, która jest najbliżej przewodu łączącego, a oznaczone kolorami paski odczytuje się od lewej do prawej w następujący sposób: Cyfra, cyfra, mnożnik = kolor, kolor x 10 kolorów w omach (Ω) Na przykład rezystor ma następujące kolorowe oznaczenia. Wcześniejsze Wcześniejsze Czwarte i piąte pasmo służy do określenia procentowej tolerancji rezystora. Tolerancja rezystora jest miarą odchylenia rezystora od określonej wartości rezystancji i jest wynikiem procesu produkcyjnego i jest podawana jako procent jego „nominalnej” lub preferowanej wartości. Typowe tolerancje rezystorów dla rezystorów foliowych mieszczą się w zakresie 1-10%, podczas gdy rezystory węglowe mają tolerancję do 20%. Rezystory z tolerancjami mniejszymi niż 2% nazywane są rezystorami precyzyjnymi z rezystorami z tolerancją lub niższą, przez co są droższe. Większość rezystorów pięciopasmowych to rezystory precyzyjne z tolerancjami 1-2%, podczas gdy większość rezystorów czteropasmowych ma tolerancję 5%, 10% lub 20%. Kod koloru używany do oznaczenia tolerancji rezystora jest podany jako jeden z następujących: Wcześniejsze Jeśli rezystor nie ma czwartego pasma tolerancji, domyślna tolerancja wynosi 20%. Rezystor z oznaczeniami kodowymi

Linux Command Line The Linux command line is a text interface to your computer, it is a computer program that interprets commands. Allowing users to execute commands by manually typing at the terminal or has the ability to automatically execute commands which were programmed in ‘Shell Scripts’. The shell is a program that takes commands from the keyboard and presents them to the operating system to perform. On most Linux systems a program called ‘bash’ (Bourne Again Shell) acts as the shell program. Besides bash, other shell programs include ksh, tcsh, and zsh. ​ A terminal is a program called a ‘ terminal emulator ’. This program opens a window and lets you interact with the shell. There are several different terminal emulators, most Linux distributions supply a few, popular terminals are: ​ Gnome-terminal - is a free open-source terminal emulator for the GNOME desktop environment, terminal emulators allow users to access a UNIX shell while remaining on their graphical desktop. Like most of the terminal emulators in this group, it supports coloured text, a variety of themes, transparency, mouse interaction, multiple tabs, and the automatic rewrapping of text upon resizing. As well as supporting multiple profiles. ​ Konsole or Console - is a free open-source terminal emulator that is part of KDE and ships with the KDE desktop environment. Konsole is the default terminal emulator shipped with KDE. Being a KDE component, it provides the embedded terminal for many other KDE applications, including Konqueror, KDevelop, and Kate. Its features are like the default GNOME terminal but have enhanced bookmarking functions for directories and SSH. It also offers split terminals. ​ xterm - In computing, xterm is the standard terminal emulator for the X Window System. Users may have many different requests of xterm running at once on the same display, each of which provides independent input/output for the process running in it (normally the process is a Unix shell). ​ rxvt - is an acronym for ouR eXtended Virtual Terminal, it is a terminal emulator for the X Window System, and in the form of a Cygwin port, for Windows. ​ Guake – is one of a few terminal emulators with a ‘ drop-down ’ style interface, emerging from the top of your screen with the press of a hotkey. ​ Tilde – is another Quake-style drop-down terminal emulator, designed for Gtk. Its name is taken from the tilde key, the default key for invoking the Quake terminal. Tilda's default interface is extremely minimal, with no window title or border, but this can be changed in the preferences. And has several options for everything from setting key bindings, setting default size and colour, and scrolling preferences. ​ Terminator - is a terminal emulator designed to make positioning terminals within a single-window easier, it features including several key-bindings, saving of layouts, and the ability to type to multiple terminals at the same time. Mirroring much of the behaviour of the GNOME terminal. ​ Yakuake - another drop-drown terminal emulator, is part of the KDE family. If you like Konsole but prefer the Quake-style approach, this is terminal may be an option. ​ To start a terminal search through the list of programs to see if anything looks like a terminal emulator: ​ With KDE - the terminal program is called ‘ konsole ’ With Gnome - it is called ‘gnome-terminal ​ Opening a Linux terminal ​ To open the terminal, press : ​ Ubuntu and Mint - Ctrl+Alt+T gnome-terminal - press Alt+F2 , type in gnome-terminal , and press enter Raspberry Pi - type in lxterminal Linux Commands Basic Commands: pwd (password) - When opening a terminal, you are in the home directory of your user. To know which directory you are in, you can use the ‘ pwd ’.command. It provides the absolute path, which means, the path that starts from the root. The root is the base of the Linux file system. It is denoted by a forward slash ( / ). The user directory is usually something like ‘ /home/username ’. ​ ls (list) - use the ‘ls’ command to know what files are in the directory you are in, but to view hidden files use the command ‘ ls -a ’. ​ cd - Use the ‘cd’ command to go to a directory. So, if you are in the home folder, and you want to go to the Documents folder, then you can type in ‘ cd Documents ’, keep in mind, this command is case sensitive, so if you type documents, it will not work, you must type in the exact name of the folder. If you just type ‘ cd ’ and press enter, it takes you to the home directory. To go back from a folder to the folder before that, you can type ‘ cd .. ’. The two dots represent back. ​ mkdir & rmdir - use the mkdir command when you need to create a folder or a directory. For example, if you want to make a directory called ‘ Music ’, then you can type ‘mkdir Music’. Remember, as told before, if you want to create a directory named ‘ Music Albums ’, then you can type ‘ mkdir Music\ Albums ’. Use rmdir to delete a directory. But rmdir can only be used to delete an empty directory. To delete a directory containing files, use rm . ​ touch - the touch command is used to create a file. It can be anything, from an empty txt file to an empty zip file. Like, ‘ touch new.txt ’. ​ rm (remove) - use the rm command to delete files and directories, typing ‘ rm -r’ will delete just the directory. It deletes both the folder and the files it contains when using only the rm command. ​ man & --help - the man command allows users to find out more about a certain command and how to use the man command. It displays the manual pages of the command. For example, ‘ man cd ’ shows the manual pages of the cd command . Typing in the command name and the argument helps it show which ways the command can be used, such as ‘ cd –help ’. ​ cp (copy) - the cp command to copies files through the command line. It has two arguments: ​ Location of the file to be copied Where to copy ​ mv (move) - the mv command moves files via the command line. It can also be used to mv command and rename a file. Such as, if we want to rename the file ‘ tinder ’ to ‘ fire ’, we can use ‘ mv tinder fire ’. It takes the two arguments, just like the cp command. ​ locate - The locate command locates a file in a Linux system, like the search command in Windows. This command is useful when you do not know where a file is saved or the actual name of the file. Using the -i argument with the command helps to ignore the case (it is not case sensitive). So, if you want a file that has the word ‘wolf ’, it gives the list of all the files in your Linux system containing the word when you type in ‘ locate -i wolf ’. If you remember two words, you can separate them using an asterisk (*). Like, to locate a file containing the words ‘wolf" and ‘ this ’, you can use the command ‘ locate -i *wolf*this ’. ​ Intermediate Commands ​ echo - the echo command allows us to move some data, typically text into a file. For example, if you want to create a new text file or add to an already made text file, you just need to type in, ‘echo beware, the wolf is at the door >> new.txt ’ . You do not need to separate the spaces by using the backward slash here because we put in two triangular brackets when we finish what we need to write. ​ sudo - is a widely used command in the Linux command line, sudo means for ‘SuperUser Do ’ . So, if you want any command to be done with administrative or root privileges, you can use the sudo command. For example, if you want to edit a file like viz. alsa-base.conf, which needs root permissions, you can use the command ‘ sudo nano alsa-base.conf ’ . You can enter the root command line using the command ‘ sudo bash ’ , then type in your user password. You can also use the command ‘ su ’ to do this, but you need to set a root password before that. For that, you can use the command ‘sudo passwd ’ ( not misspelled, it is abbreviated to passwd ). Then type in the new root password. ​ cat - the cat command is used to display the contents of a file. It is usually used to easily view programs. ​ nano, vi, jed - nano, and vi are installed text editors in the Linux command line. The nano command text editor denotes keywords with colour and can recognise most languages, vi is simpler than nano. You can also create a new file or modify a file using this editor. Like, to make a new file named ‘ cub.txt ’, you can create it by using the command ‘ nano cub.txt ’. You can save your files after editing by using the sequence Ctrl+X, then Y (or N for no). ​ tar - use tar to work with tarballs (files compressed in a tarball archive) in the Linux command line. It can compress or un-compress different types of tar archives like .tar , .tar.gz , or .tar.bz2 . It works based on the arguments given to it, like, ‘ tar -cvf ’ for creating a .tar archive, -xvf to untar a tar archive, -tvf to list the contents of the archive. ​ df - use the df command to see the available disk space in each of the partitions in your system. Type ‘ df ’ in the command line to see each mounted partition and their used/available space in % and in KBs. If you want it shown in megabytes, you can use the command ‘ df -m ’ . ​ du (disk usage) - the du lets you know the disk usage of a file in your system. If you wish to know the disk usage for a particular folder or file in Linux, you can type in the command ‘ df ’ and the name of the folder or file. So, if you want to know the disk space used by the documents folder in Linux, you can use the command ‘ du Documents ’ . You can also use the command ‘ ls -lah ’ to view the file sizes of all the files in a folder. ​ zip, unzip - is used to compress files into a zip archive, and unzip to extract files from a zip archive. ​ uname - Use uname to show the information about the system your Linux distro is running. Using the command ‘ uname -a ’ prints most of the information about the system. This prints the kernel release date, version, or processor type. ​ apt-get - using apt allows users to work with packages in the Linux command line. Users use apt-get to install packages. This requires root privileges, so the sudo command will also be required. Such as, if you want to install the text editor vim , type in the command ‘ sudo apt-get install vim ’ . Similarly, any package can be installed this way. However, it is prudent to update your repository each time you want to install new packages. This can be done by typing ‘ sudo apt-get update ’ . Upgrading the system you type ‘ sudo apt-get upgrade ’, and for distro upgrades, type ‘ sudo apt-get ‘ dist-upgrade ’ . The command ‘ apt-cache search ’ is used to search for a package. If you want to search for one, you can type in ‘ apt-cache search vim ’, but this does not require root command. ​ chmod - use chmod to make a file executable and to change the permissions granted to it in Linux. If you have a python code-named dog.py on your computer. You will need to run ‘ python dog.py ’ every time you need to run it. Instead of that, when you make it executable, you only just need to run ‘ dog.py ’ in the terminal to run the file. To make a file executable, you can use the command ‘ chmod +x dog.py ’ . You can use ‘ chmod 755 dog.py ’ to give it root permissions or ‘ sudo chmod +x numbers.py ’ for root executable. ​ ping - is used to check your connection to a server, it is a computer network administration software utility that tests the reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. When ‘ ping google.com ’ is typed it checks if it can connect to that server and come back, and also measures the round-trip time then gives displays the details about it. Most users use this command to check their internet connection. If it pings the server the internet connection is active. ​ hostname - hostname provides your name in your host or network. It displays your hostname and IP address. Typing ‘ hostname ’ gives the output. While typing in ‘ hostname -I ’ gives you your IP address in your network.

Sandwich Bread Loaf Making home bread is easy. We do not buy bread but make our own, and with a little patience and the correct utensils, anyone should be able to make their own bread loaves, rolls, or French sticks. When making your own bread you know what is in it and how it has been handled. In my locality we found the bread and pastries to be over-baked. If you prefer hard, crispy tops to your loaves, it is amazingly easy to do without over-baking them. ​ Large 2lb Soft Sandwich Bread Loaf – around 74% Hydration Bread Recipe ​ 435g - Strong White Flour - ideally it should have a protein level of 12.5 to 13g. 245g - Warm Water – roughly 40°C / 104°F in a jug or bowl 20g – Olive Oil 7g – Instant Dried Yeast OR 15g of Fresh Yeast 6g – Table Salt 6g – Granulated Sugar Word printable recipe PDF printable recipe Method Weigh 245g warm water in a container and stir in the 6g sugar , then the yeast and 20g extra virgin olive oil and stir until thoroughly mixed. ​ Cover and leave the yeast to begin to show signs that it is active (you should see bubbles on the surface of the mixture), this can take up to 10 minutes , but at lower temperatures, it may take a little longer. If the yeast shows no signs of being active, discard and use new yeast. I place the container in a bowl of warm water at 40°C and keep topping up as required. ​ Mix 435g - Strong White Flour and 6g salt in a separate bowl. ​ Mix active yeast mix with flour and knead correctly for at least 10 minutes (my video on bread making explains this). ​ Grease clean bowl with extra virgin olive oil, drop in the dough into the bowl, lift and turn so that there is olive oil on top of the dough. Cover and leave to prove for about 40 minutes (according to room temperature). I place the container in a tray of warm water at 40°C and keep topping up as required. After 40 minutes the dough should have doubled in size, if the room is cooler, let it prove longer. ​ I grease my 2lb bread tray with butter and then olive oil, and do not have problems with the bread sticking to the container. ​ Knead the dough for about 5-6 turns to get rid of the air and then shape the dough and place in a bread tin. You can dust the bread with flour at this time. I'm a paragraph. Click here to add your own text and edit me. It's easy. I put the bread tin with the dough into a large plastic container with about 30mls of warm water for the second prove. The plastic container has a tray in the bottom to prevent the bread tin from resting in the water. Cover with its lit and place in a tray of warm water to prove for about 40 minutes or until the dough has doubled in size. Preheat the oven to 190°C / 374°F or gas mark 5 . Place the bread tin into the oven and turn the heat down to 180°C / 356°F or gas mark 4 and cook for 15 minutes , the centre of the oven turning the bread tin and cooking for a further 15 minutes , for even cooking. *I have found that all ovens are not equal, mine, when set at 180°C its actual temperature is 160°C , so I must accommodate this variation by turning the dial to 200°C .

Tools Whether they be scrap build or model kits there is a vast array of tools available to make and modify models. Before deciding what tools you need, decide what type of models you are going to build, a few are: ​ Scale model building, plastic model kits, have a magnitude of types, such as: Model military vehicles, figures, and terrain. Model aircraft. Model cars, commercial, and construction vehicles. Model rockets. Naval, ship models. Architectural models, cardboard, or high-density foam buildings. Model figures or busts. Rail transport modelling (probably the most well-known). Gundam models. Scenery to stage models. So, model building is not exclusively a hobbyist pursuit. The complexity of assembling representations of actual objects has become a career for numerous people. Some build models to commemorate historic events or commissioned to construct models using past events as a basis to predict future events of high commercial interest, while others work for the film industry. ​ In the 1950-60s, a relative built live steam engine models from scratch, and I can remember watching him work. The UK has an extremely high fraternity of live steam engine modellers, partly, I think to the vast community of steam engines/traction engines in the UK. There is a basic list of tools required to build plastic scale model kits, mine is: Sprue cutters – removing items off the sprue. Finer plastic cutters – trimming off excess. Scalpel handles or hobby knife – trimming and removing mold lines, cutting decals. I prefer scalpel handles and have: Numbers 3, 4, 5, 7 and a long scalpel handle that takes N◦.20/22/24 blades. But I use mostly the size 10 blades that have a sharp point. I have medical sharps boxes for the disposal of blades. Dissecting Forceps – plain dissecting forceps, I use a variety suited to handling models and decals, such as: Atraumatic – thumb style used for grasping delicate tissue. Adson – serrated jaws with wide, flat thumb grasp area used for delicate tissue. Artery clip – used to apply and remove scalpel blades from knife handles. I use a variety, but mostly: De Bakey Forceps. Dunhill Artery Forceps. Mosquito Artery Forceps. Various pliers –non-aggressive. Scissors – straight and curved, plus special scissors for decals. Toothbrushes – fine, medium, and hard. Marking pens – various. Alligator clips placed on barbecue skewers for airbrushing. Sanding sticks – various grades. Paint - as mentioned in the paint section, water-based acrylic paint is the most commonly used to spray plastic models. Paintbrushes - sizes of models vary greatly if you are interested in Warhammer 28mm figures or painting busts a good selection of paintbrushes is vital. They range in size, from 000 up. Specialised Equipment Among my tools, I have some specialised equipment that makes life a lot easier, such as my: ​ Vortex Mixer – I have used this to mix my paint for many years and it is fantastic and a godsend (as I have arthritis in most of my joints), I have just ordered a replacement as it eventually failed, not surprising really considering the amount of use it gets. ​ Food Dehydrator – I have one that heats to 80°C but tend to run it at 70°C, it has 10 shelves and a fantastic piece of equipment, large enough to get a 1:32 tank fully built easily. If you decide to get one make sure it is large enough, the smaller plastic dehydrators will not take anything big. We also use it to dry fruit, meat, and flowers. You must let the sprayed models dry to touch (about 20 minutes) before putting them in the dehydrator. But the dehydrator will cure primer, varnish, and laquear paint in 4 hours that would normally take between 2 to 3 weeks. And when using acrylic, I have completely sprayed a tank and weathered and built it in a day. Mine is ECO friendly and uses minimal electricity, it came with 10 stainless steel and 4 plastic trays. ​ Additional Air Compressor Tank – my air compressor has a 2.5L tank, which is fine, but I purchased an additional 5L air compressor tank just to keep the noise levels down when videoing in my workshop. Nova3D Printer – I use this to print replacements for damaged model parts or when designing terrain for my dioramas. ​ Colour Laser Printer – I rarely use decals from the manufacturers who make the model kits as I find them of poor quality, so, I either airbrush the design directly onto the model or scan it onto my computer, edit it (if required) and then print them.

CMD - Command Promt Before Windows was created, the most usual operating system that ran on computers was DOS (Disk Operating System). ​ I can remember learning how to use DOS and still use it on a regular basis. ​ Over time, newer versions of Windows were developed, and DOS was finally phased out with Windows ME. However, even with Windows 7, 8, 10, and 11, the CMD (Command Line) in DOS (disk operating system) system still runs in the background, and a command line or command prompt window can still be opened. It has a similar appearance to DOS and can be a useful tool when diagnosing problems. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ The command prompt/line is also used in Linux operating systems and many seasoned computer users use the command line as much as the graphical user interface. ​ Whether you are using MS Windows, macOS or Linux, there is a Shell, (Shell is a computer program that presents a command-line interface that allows you to control your computer using commands entered with a keyboard instead of controlling graphical user interfaces (GUIs) with a mouse/keyboard combination), Console window or the likes lurking in the background. Windows and Linux use different commands to access and use these Shells, so if you use both you will need to learn two types of command language. Using the Command Prompt or Dos Window ​ When people refer to the command prompt, they may refer to it in different ways. Some call it: ​ A Shell Console Window Command Prompt Cmd Prompt Terminal Command Line DOS ​ To find and open an MS-DOS prompt or Windows command line for the various Windows versions press the Window key and type CMD , this will highlight the Command Prompt , then click it to open the shell.

Capacitors Kondensator lub kondensator to pasywny, dwubiegunowy element elektryczny służący do elektrostatycznego magazynowania energii w obwodzie elektrycznym. Kondensatory różnią się znacznie, ale wszystkie zawierają co najmniej dwa przewodniki elektryczne (płytki) oddzielone izolatorem. Gdy różnica potencjałów między przewodnikami (gdy kondensator jest przymocowany do baterii), powstaje pole elektryczne na dielektryku, powodując gromadzenie się ładunku dodatniego na jednej płycie i ujemnego ładunku na drugiej płycie. Jeśli bateria była podłączona do kondensatora przez wystarczająco długi czas, przez kondensator nie może przepływać żaden prąd. Ale jeśli napięcie przyspieszające lub przemienne (AC) zostanie przyłożone do przewodów kondensatora, może płynąć prąd przesunięcia. Wcześniejsze Idealny kondensator charakteryzuje się jedną stałą wartością jego pojemności. Pojemność jest wyrażona jako stosunek ładunku elektrycznego na każdym przewodniku do różnicy potencjałów (V = napięcie) między nimi. SI (Międzynarodowy układ jednostek SI jest skrótem od francuskiego Système international (d'unités), nowoczesnej formy systemu metrycznego) Wcześniejsze Kondensator Pojemność kondensatora Pojemność jest elektrycznym aspektem kondensatora i mierzy zdolność kondensatora do przechowywania ładunku elektrycznego na jego podwójnych płytach. Jednostką pojemności jest Farad (F). Pojemność jest zdefiniowana jako taka, że kondensator ma pojemność Jednego Farada, gdy ładunek Jednego Kulomba jest przechowywany na płytach pod napięciem jednego wolta. Pojemność (C) ma stale dodatnią (+ ve) wartość, bez jednostek ujemnych (-ve). Jednak Farad jest wyjątkowo dużą jednostką miary, którą można stosować samodzielnie, więc ogólnie stosuje się podwielokrotności Farada, takie jak mikro-farady, nano-farady lub piko-farady. Standardowe jednostki pojemności Mikrofarad (μF) 1 μF = 1/1 000 000 = 0,000001 = 10-6 F. Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1 000 000 000 = 0,000000001 = 10–9 F Pikofarad (pF) 1 pF = 1 / 1,000,000,000,000 = 0,000000000001 = 10-12 F Korzystając z informacji powyżej, można zastosować prostą tabelę, aby pomóc w przeliczeniu piko-Farad (pF), nano-Farad (nF), mikro-Farad (μF) i Farady (F), jak wskazano poniżej. Kondensatory są kluczowym elementem w zestawach modeli z dynamicznymi modyfikacjami oświetlenia i dźwięku.

Hard Drives (HDD) A hard disk drive (HDD) is a storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information (data) HDD retains their data even when powered off, unlike memory RAMs. ​ There are three types of hard drives: SATA , SSD, and NVMe . ​ In 2003, SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) was introduced as the default interface for most desktop and laptop hard drives and referred to as SATA hard drives, but they are rotary hard drives with spinning platters coated with a magnetic material, with a moving needle that writes data to consecutive sectors on each platter. ​ Most computer HDDs are fitted into an internal drive bay in the computer and connect to the motherboard using a SATA cable. ​ HDDs can also be used as external devices these are reasonable as backup drives reducing the risk of data loss if the HDD fails. ​ The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-inch for desktop computers and 2.5-inch for laptops. ​ A single drive can range from 80 GB to 16 TB and are reliable drives if you need a lot of cheap storage and do not need extremely high reads or writes. Since data is physically written to a disk, deleted, and re-written numerous times, it can become fragmented, meaning that different sectors can be spread across different areas of the disk, thereby slowing down the drive. HDDs also are vulnerable to shock or sudden movement since there are moving parts in each drive, which makes them a poor choice for laptops. Pros: Low cost. High disk sizes. Cons: Not good for laptops. Requires regular de-fragmentation. SSD stands for Solid State Drive , SSDs do not have moving parts. Instead, the data is stored on non-volatile flash memory. So, there is no needle that must move to read or write data, and this makes them significantly faster than SATA drives. It is difficult to define exact speeds because it varies by manufacturer and form factor, but the lower-performing drives are comparable to SATA drives. ​ The disadvantage is that they are significantly more expensive and do not come in as many sizes. SSD drives generally range from about 80GB to 2 TB. Since there are no moving parts, these drives are also more durable, and there are form factors built specifically for laptops, making them ideal for storage on the go. But they are still prone to failure. Pros: Fast More durable, especially for laptops Cons: More expensive than SATA drives Lower disk sizes Non-Volatile Memory Express, or NVMe Released in 2013, is a type of SSD that is attached to a motherboard fitted with a PCI Express (PCIe) slot. Incredibly fast, PCIe slots were originally designed for graphics cards. Speeds on NVMe drives can reach an interface rate of 32 Gb/s with a throughput of 3.9 GB/s, useful if gaming or high-resolution video editing. ​ Most older BIOS do not support booting from NVMe, so installing an Operating System on an NVMe, a motherboard upgrade may be required. Having worked for a major IT company and saw the distress on customers' faces when their HDDs failed and they lost their data, I always recommend the Cloud Storage option for important data or photographs. Data recovery on failed drives is awfully expensive and not guaranteed. ​ ​ ​ Protect your data, if you scrap an old computer DO NOT throw away your HDDs as they can be connected to your new computer using a USB adapter. Also, the important data stored on them can be retrieved by a second or third party, meaning they could have access to ALL your personal information, including passwords and bank details, so BEWARE! Dealing with HDD Error messages and issues

Networking and Internet It is a computer network is a group of computers or servers that use a set of common communication protocols over digital interconnections for the function of sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes. The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network analysis situs. ​ Computer networks for the home and small business can be built using wired or wireless technology. In the past, a wired Ethernet has been the option is used in homes, but Wi-Fi wireless technology has improved greatly and is now commonplace. ​ Wired and wireless networks have advantages and disadvantages. They equally epitomise practical choices for home or other local area networks (LANs) and depend on the packages purchased by the user. ​ When possible, I prefer wired solutions as performance and security are better and more reliable. Wireless networks are convenient but can have performance and security issues. ​ Both have advantages and disadvantages. ​ Wireless networks allow devices to stay connected to the network but roam untethered to any wires. Access points amplify Wi-Fi signals, so a device can be far from a router but still be connected to the network. When connected to a Wi-Fi hotspot at a public place, café, hotel, airport lounge, the connection is with that business's wireless network. ​ Wired networks use cables to connect devices, such as desktop computers, laptops, or servers to access the Internet or additional network. A wired network has disadvantages when compared to a wireless network, the largest is that the device is tethered to a router. ​ Motherboards have at least one RJ-45 networking socket and some have integrated Wi-Fi adapters fitted. ​ A computer network is a collection of computers and/or hardware interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. ​ It is where a device, computer or server sends or receives data to or from another device, computer, or server in a remote location. When connected, the two devices are said to be networked. A network is a group is the sum of computers, tablets, phones, laptops, and servers that are connected. Networks are organised in a diverse group of physiognomies, such as, the method used to carry the data and communications protocols. ​ Communication protocols define the rules and data formats for swapping information in a computer network and provide the basis for network programming. Router A router is a networking device that forwards data several layer packets between computer networks, such as files, communications, and transmissions. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent through the internet, like web pages or emails, data packets, a packet is normally forwarded from one router to router through the networks that make up the Internet until it reaches its destination node. ​ Data packets have several layers, or sections, one of which carries identifying information such as sender, data type, size, and most importantly, the destination Internet protocol (IP) address. The router reads this layer, prioritizes the data, and chooses the best route to use for each transmission.

Model Building Od wielu lat buduję zestawy modeli i czułem, że często brakuje ich jakości i wyglądu. Ta strona ilustruje niektóre metody, których używam, aby przezwyciężyć te niedociągnięcia. Projektuję również i buduję układy elektroniczne do ulepszania niektórych modeli i dioram. Lubię projektować i budować zestawy modeli z dynamicznym oświetleniem, możliwe były modyfikacje dźwięku i dioramy Dodam kanał wideo, aby zilustrować, jak pracuję, obwody, które projektuję i recenzje produktów. Na przestrzeni lat używałam wielu rodzajów farb, głównie: akryle na bazie wody, farby olejne, lakiery, emalie na bazie rozpuszczalników. Każdy ma zalety i wady .

555 Timer Układ scalony timera 555 jest układem scalonym (chipem) używanym w szeregu funkcji timera, opóźnienia, generowania impulsów i oscylatora. Jest to przydatny komponent w budowaniu zestawów modeli i modulacji oświetlenia. Jest to obwód czasowy, który zapewnia precyzyjne i bardzo stabilne opóźnienia czasu lub oscylacji. Te typy układów scalonych są tanie i niezawodne w porównaniu z aplikacjami OP-Amp w tych samych obszarach. 555 Timery są stosowane jako niezawodne i monostabilne multiwibratory w cyfrowych sondach logicznych, przetwornikach DC-DC, tachometrach, analogowych miernikach częstotliwości, regulatorach napięcia, urządzeniach kontrolowanych i pomiarowych. IC SE555 może być używany w zakresie temperatur od - 55 ° C do 125 ° C, podczas gdy IC NE555 może być używany w zakresie temperatur od 0 ° do 70 ° C. Monostabilny multiwibrator to sekwencyjny logiczny obwód elektroniczny, który generuje impuls wyjściowy. Po uruchomieniu generowany jest impuls o zdefiniowanym czasie trwania. Obwód następnie powraca do swojego stabilnego stanu i nie wytwarza więcej sygnału wyjściowego, aż do ponownego wyzwolenia.